Chapter 21 Engineering Hubris: Adam Smith and the Quest for the Perfect Machine
Abstract
This abstract discusses Adam Smith's observation from "The Theory of Moral Sentiments" about human tendencies to perfect tools or devices beyond practical necessity. The abstract highlights how this pursuit of perfection can lead to both groundbreaking innovations and significant failures. It is illustrated through four case studies:
Panama Canal (Failure): The attempt to build a sea-level canal in Panama, inspired by the successful Suez Canal, ended in disaster due to the challenging geography of the new world. This case exemplifies how the drive for perfection, without considering practical limitations, can lead to failure.
Buckminster Fuller’s Dymaxion Houses (Failure): Buckminster Fuller's ambition to create prefabricated, inexpensive “Dymaxion Houses” was thwarted by his relentless pursuit of perfection and desire for complete control over the project.
Quest for Reusable Spacecraft (Failure): The pursuit of an ideal reusable spacecraft, particularly a “single stage to orbit” system, resulted in the development of the space shuttle. This was a costly and hazardous endeavor, demonstrating how fixation on a perfect solution can overshadow more practical and reliable alternatives.
John Harrison’s Timepiece (Success): In contrast, John Harrison's dedication to creating a reliable timepiece for solving the "longitude problem" is a success story. Despite rejecting many good but imperfect prototypes, his persistence and perfectionism eventually led to a significant technological breakthrough.
In summary, these case studies illustrate Adam Smith's point about the human drive for perfection in technology. While this drive can sometimes lead to impressive successes, it often results in overlooking other important goals, resulting in failure.
Introduction
Neil MacGregor: So what we’re looking at in this chopping tool is the moment at which we became distinctly smarter and with an impulse not just to make things, but to imagine how we could make things ‘better’.
David Attenborough: This object sits at the base of a process which has become almost obsessive amongst human beings. ... I think the man or woman who held this, made it just for that particular job and perhaps got some satisfaction from knowing that it was going to do it very effectively, very economically and very neatly.
Adam Smith, in "The Theory of Moral Sentiments," discusses a human tendency to excessively perfect a system or machine, often going far beyond practical or economic needs. This inclination, he notes, is driven more by the pleasure of contemplating and perfecting the means itself, rather than the original practical purpose of the invention. Smith argues that this focus on perfecting the means can become a stronger motivation than the end goal the device is intended to serve.
Key points of Smith's observation include:
Imagination's Deception: Smith suggests that our imagination can deceive us into prioritizing the perfection of means over the ends. The satisfaction derived from the means can seem more important than the practical benefits of the device.
Productive Aspect: This drive to perfect can be highly productive, stimulating continuous human industry and leading to significant achievements.
Distinct Mental Capacity: Smith speculates that the ability to analyze and improve the means as an end in itself might be a unique human mental capacity. This trait distinguishes innovative and creative individuals, including engineers, scientists, designers, and artists.
Counter-Productivity: Despite its benefits, this drive can be counter-productive when "the perfect becomes the enemy of the good." People might strive to perfect a system or device for marginal advantages, disregarding the inconveniences or potential harm caused in the process.
Trivial Example: Smith gives an example of a person rearranging chairs for efficiency, even when there is no immediate need, highlighting how minor this obsession with perfection can become.
Obsession in Professions: Certain professions, like scientists, artists, and engineers, might be more prone to this obsession. In engineering, professional ethics aim to control this perfectionist drive to prevent it from derailing projects.
The paper then moves to examine three engineering case studies where perfectionism led to project failures and a final case where it resulted in success, illustrating the double-edged nature of this human tendency.
21.1 Case 1: The Panama Canal
The first case study in the paper discusses the Panama Canal project. It highlights the following points:
Suez Canal Success: The construction of a canal between the Mediterranean and Red Seas at Suez in the 1860s, facilitated by the invention of dynamite, was a significant success. This sea-level canal dramatically altered commercial and political history.
Panama Canal Ambition: Inspired by the Suez Canal's success, Ferdinand De Lesseps, the founder of the Suez Canal Company, aimed to replicate this achievement by constructing a sea-level canal in Panama.
Uncompromising Approach: De Lesseps insisted on a sea-level canal in Panama, symbolizing an uncompromising conquest of natural obstacles.
Challenges in Panama: Unlike the Suez, the Panama site presented numerous difficulties: it was a thick, wet, malaria-infested jungle with challenging geography, requiring extensive labor often compromised by disease. The underlying shale caused constant issues, sliding back into the canal and necessitating re-blasting and dredging.
High Point and Bankruptcy: The highest point along the Panama route was significantly higher than that at Suez, and no technological breakthrough occurred to ease the process. These challenges led to the bankruptcy of the company in 1889 without completing the canal.
US Involvement and Strategic Interests: After the Spanish-American War, the United States recognized strategic interests in an inter-ocean connection and resumed the project, now considering the construction of a lock canal rather than a sea-level one.
Completion with Compromises: The US took over the project, benefiting from medical advancements that controlled tropical diseases. The Panama Canal, with locks, was completed in 1914, just in time for WWI.
De Lesseps’s Obsession: De Lesseps’s fixation on a sea-level canal, despite the impracticality, led to disastrous consequences. His refusal to adapt to geographic realities brought financial ruin and loss of life until a new approach accepted geographic compromises.
The case of the Panama Canal illustrates how an idealistic vision and an inflexible approach to engineering can lead to failure and disaster. It serves as a cautionary tale about the importance of adapting to practical realities in large-scale engineering projects.
21.2 Case 2: The Dymaxion House
The second case study in the paper discusses Buckminster Fuller's Dymaxion House project. It highlights the following key points:
Buckminster Fuller's Vision: Fuller, known for his geodesic dome, was an inventive architect interested in unconventional solutions. He focused on tension structures and proposed designs where a central mast supported the structure, allowing for lighter and less expensive construction.
Dymaxion House Concept: Fuller's Dymaxion House was a radical departure from traditional housing. It was a cylindrical structure centered around a mast, inspired by aluminum grain silos. Its design allowed for modular rooms, easy shipping, and quick assembly.
Challenges and Criticisms: The Dymaxion House faced several practical challenges. Its curved walls made it difficult to hang pictures or fit traditional furniture. The design also required a significant shift in both consumer preferences and utility services. The cost savings promised by Fuller depended on mass production and design uniformity.
Potential Market and Cost: Despite its unconventional design, the Dymaxion House might have found a market niche due to its affordability. In the post-WWII housing market, its estimated cost was significantly lower than average homes, making it an attractive alternative.
Fuller's Perfectionism and Project Collapse: Fuller's insistence on perfection delayed the project. He wanted to design every component himself and waited for better materials to become available, aiming for a launch in 1952, 25 years after his original designs. This perfectionism and delays led to investor frustration and the eventual collapse of the construction plan.
Lost Opportunity: The Dymaxion House project never restarted, potentially due to the lost window of opportunity and diminished faith in Fuller's vision. Fuller may have also shifted his focus to other projects like the geodesic dome.
The case of the Dymaxion House illustrates how an engineer's pursuit of perfection and ideal solutions can impede the realization of a potentially beneficial and innovative product. This story serves as an example of how the desire for perfection can become an obstacle to practical and achievable goals.
21.3 Case 3: Single-Stage-to-Orbit (SSTO) and the Space Shuttle
The third case study presented in the paper discusses the development and challenges of the Space Transportation System (STS), commonly known as the Space Shuttle, in the context of pursuing the dream of a Single-Stage-to-Orbit (SSTO) vehicle. Key points include:
Energy Requirements for Orbit: Achieving orbit requires significant kinetic energy, often necessitating that over 90% of a launch vehicle's mass be fuel. This leads to the use of multi-stage rockets, where used-up parts are discarded during ascent to minimize weight.
Quest for Reusability: There's a strong allure in creating a reusable spacecraft, ideally an SSTO vehicle, to potentially reduce costs and increase launch frequency. However, achieving SSTO with chemical rockets is extremely challenging due to the energy requirements of reaching orbit.
Space Shuttle Design: The Space Shuttle was NASA's attempt to approach the SSTO ideal with available technology. It was designed as a "stage and a half" launcher, discarding solid fuel boosters and an external fuel tank but retaining the main engines and the orbiter for reuse.
Complications of Reusability: The Space Shuttle's design, aiming for reusability, presented numerous challenges. Its size and re-entry profile necessitated it being attached to the side of its booster, exposing its heat shield. This design complexity increased both cost and risk, as tragically illustrated by the Columbia disaster.
High Maintenance and Costs: Contrary to initial hopes of cost reduction through reusability, the Shuttle required extensive and costly maintenance between flights. The comprehensive refurbishment process for each Shuttle mission ended up making its per-pound payload launch costs higher than most conventional launch systems.
STS Program Evaluation: The Space Shuttle program's success in terms of innovation versus practicality remains debated. While it represented a significant technological achievement, the limitations and high costs associated with its reusability have led to a reconsideration of more traditional, expendable launch systems.
The Space Shuttle case study demonstrates how the pursuit of an idealistic goal in engineering, like SSTO or complete reusability, can lead to complex challenges and trade-offs, sometimes making a less ambitious but more practical approach more viable.
21.4 Case 4: The Longitude Problem
The fourth case study presented is the success story of John Harrison, an 18th-century clockmaker who dedicated his life to solving the "longitude problem," crucial for oceanic navigation. The key points include:
The Longitude Problem: Navigators could determine latitude easily but struggled with longitude, often miscalculating their position by considerable distances. The British government, recognizing the significance of this issue for its naval and merchant fleets, offered a substantial prize in 1714 for a solution.
John Harrison's Quest: John Harrison, a skilled clockmaker, believed the key to solving the longitude problem lay in creating a highly precise and reliable timepiece that could withstand the rigors of sea travel.
Development of Timepieces: Harrison developed several iterations of his timepiece:
H-1 (1737): Weighing 75 pounds, it was accurate within a few seconds per day.
H-2: Improved on H-1 but Harrison, identifying flaws, declined to test it.
H-3: Introduced further innovations like a bimetallic strip and ball bearings.
H-4 (1757): A significant advancement, this 3-pound clock had accuracy comparable to H-3 and was inspired by the compactness of pocket watches.
Perfectionism and Delay: Despite the accuracy of his earlier models, Harrison delayed official trials, continually seeking to perfect his design. His insistence on correcting every flaw before testing reflects a perfectionist drive.
Competition and Recognition: As Harrison perfected his timepieces, the lunar distance method (calculating longitude based on the moon's position relative to stars) emerged as a rival solution. Despite the delay, Harrison's H-4 eventually passed the prize criteria. However, he never officially won the prize but was awarded a significant grant in recognition of his contributions.
Legacy: Harrison's pursuit of perfection in clockmaking fundamentally improved the accuracy of time measurement, providing an invaluable tool for navigation and influencing the development of timekeeping technologies.
This case illustrates how a perfectionist obsession, unlike the previous three cases, can lead to groundbreaking success, particularly when the individual's dedication and skill align with the complexities of the challenge at hand. Harrison's commitment to refining his timepieces ultimately resolved a critical issue in navigation, demonstrating that perfectionism can sometimes drive significant technological advancements.
21.5 Conclusion
The conclusion of the case studies emphasizes that there is no clear-cut moral or practical lesson to be drawn from comparing the different outcomes of perfectionist pursuits in engineering and innovation. The key takeaways include:
Variable Outcomes of Perfectionism: The pursuit of perfection can sometimes lead to breakthroughs (as with John Harrison's clock for solving the longitude problem), while in other instances, it can lead to failure or disaster (as seen in the Panama Canal project, Buckminster Fuller's Dymaxion House, and NASA's Space Shuttle program).
Complex Factors in Success and Failure: The difference between success and failure in these cases is not merely about the innovator's genius or competence. Factors like unforeseen contingencies, reliance on future inventions, and the nature of the problems being tackled play significant roles.
Risk and Cost Considerations: Perfectionism in innovation can have varying degrees of moral acceptability, depending on the risks and costs involved. For example, John Harrison's work, though delayed, didn't involve significant risk or cost, unlike the Panama Canal project, which resulted in numerous deaths and financial ruin.
Reliance on Future Inventions: Some innovators, like De Lesseps and Fuller, depended on future technological advancements that did not materialize in time, whereas Harrison relied mainly on his own skills and understanding to improve his designs.
Lone Inventor vs. Teamwork: The cases show no clear advantage of working alone versus in a team. While Harrison succeeded as a lone inventor, the Shuttle program, developed by a team, faced complications, suggesting that both approaches have their merits and pitfalls.
Balancing Innovation with Practicality: The partnership between James Watt, an obsessive inventor, and Matthew Boulton, a practical businessman, exemplifies a balanced approach. Boulton financed Watt's design work on the condition that functional models were built and sold, allowing for continuous improvement while meeting market demands.
Optimizing Multiple Output Variables: Engineers are advised to consider a range of factors beyond a single goal, like economic, political, and safety considerations. Focusing solely on perfecting one aspect can overshadow other crucial elements of a project.
Embracing and Managing the Perfectionist Impulse: The perfectionist drive can be both beneficial and detrimental. It's essential to harness this impulse to serve broader goals rather than letting it dominate to the detriment of the project's overall success.
In summary, the pursuit of perfection in engineering and innovation is a double-edged sword. While it can lead to significant advancements, it also carries the risk of overshadowing other important project goals or becoming an unattainable obsession. Balancing perfectionism with practical considerations and the multiplicity of project goals is crucial.
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