Chapter 22 The Technology of Collective Memory and the Normativity of Truth

 

Abstract

The abstract discusses the impact of technology on human memory and the perception of the past. Our evolutionary and pre-literate cultural background did not prepare us for the reliance on technology to record and preserve memories. Historically, memory served purposes that were useful or pleasurable, but the emergence of technology has shifted the focus towards the accuracy and truthfulness of memories.

The rise of "lifelogging" and digital memory-supporting technologies represents a significant change in how we understand ourselves socially and psychologically. Lifelogging involves extensively recording one's daily life using digital technology, which changes the way we recall and interact with our past experiences.

This technological shift raises important challenges for policymakers, designers, and social thinkers. They must navigate the dilemmas presented by these technologies, such as issues related to privacy, the reliability of digitally stored memories, and the impact of these technologies on human behavior and society. The abstract implies that these changes are accelerating and could profoundly affect our relationship with memory and the past.

22.1 Introduction

The introduction of Chapter 22 examines the complex nature of human memory and its interaction with technology. It highlights the fallibility of memory, noting that memories can often misrepresent past events, yet they can still trigger a strong sense of recognition when confronted with an accurate representation, such as a video recording.

The chapter acknowledges the research showing the unreliability of eyewitness recollections, especially when influenced by misleading questions or external information. However, this unreliability in specific details doesn't prevent a person from recognizing the correct individual or event upon revisiting.

It challenges the traditional metaphor of memory as a 'filing cabinet' with neatly organized and retrievable representations of the past. Instead, memory is portrayed as dynamic and susceptible to change through various influences such as conversations, media exposure, and personal narration.

The chapter references Maurice Chevalier's song lyrics to illustrate how two people can have completely different recollections of the same event, yet agree on its overall significance. This exemplifies Marcel Proust's theory that memories are influenced by current perceptions and the evolving significance of past events.

The focus then shifts to the role of technology, like photographs, in supporting memory. The assumption is made that while photographs can be manipulated, they are generally more accurate and veridical representations of the past compared to human memory. This assumption is made to simplify the argument and contrast with the fallibility of human memory.

The chapter intends to explore how technology elevates the importance of truth in memory. This shift towards valuing truth in memory, facilitated by technological advancements, is expected to drive significant social and psychological changes. These changes necessitate careful consideration and potentially new approaches in areas such as privacy, data protection, and the right to information.

22.2 The Technology of Memory

Chapter 22.2 delves into the evolving intersection of human memory and technology. It highlights how the rapid advancements in technology have expanded beyond medical purposes to leisure, social networking, and self-improvement. The chapter underscores the dramatic shift in memory support due to Moore’s Law, noting that the vast storage capabilities of modern devices have greatly reduced the cognitive burden associated with deciding what to keep or delete. This development aligns with the associative nature of human memory, where we store diverse information without knowing its future utility.

The chapter points out that it is now feasible to store a lifetime's worth of high-quality video, leading to the emergence of 'Memories for Life' as a significant research area. This concept aims to integrate machines as companions for humans and manage digital records effectively.

The SenseCam, a passive photographic device developed by Microsoft, exemplifies the application of memory-supporting technology. Worn around the neck, it captures the wearer's experiences without active intervention, producing a visual log that, when played back as a sped-up movie, can remarkably enhance the memories of individuals with severe memory impairments.

The broader practice of using such technologies indiscriminately to document daily life is termed 'lifelogging.' This approach relies on devices like mobile phones, web browsers, and social networking sites, which generate a wealth of information. Pioneers in this field include individuals like Steve Mann, Jennifer Ringley, and Gordon Bell, who have variously used technology to document their lives extensively and explored the transformative potential of these technologies in different domains.

The chapter predicts that the widespread adoption of lifelogging technologies will lead to a world characterized by universality, where a significant portion of the population maintains extensive digital records covering many aspects of their lives. These records will likely be durable, shared widely, and could amalgamate information from various personal devices, social networks, and public sources, providing an enriched and comprehensive view of one's life and, inadvertently, the lives of others.

22.3 The Normativity of Truth for Memory

Chapter 22.3 discusses the evolution of human memory and its relationship with technology. Historically, memory served primarily to aid survival, adapting and recalling significant events without needing precise accuracy. For instance, a fear reflex might be more effective if it is overly sensitive, triggering false positive identifications of threats. Similarly, forgetting traumatic events can also have adaptive value. In this context, memory's utility lies more in facilitating smooth functioning rather than in the accuracy of its representations.

The chapter contrasts this with the impact of technology on memory, particularly in oral cultures without permanent records. In such societies, memory is not focused on verbatim recall, which has limited utility. Instead, recollection becomes a creative, performative act, intertwined with current social and political contexts. For example, an elder recounting a chief's ancestry is less about factual accuracy and more about reflecting current power dynamics. In these settings, the concept of 'misrepresentation' is fluid, as there are no permanent records to serve as a benchmark for truth.

The advent of literacy introduced a new dimension to memory, offering certified records against which individual memories could be compared. This gradual shift saw written words initially as aids to memory but eventually evolving into independent standards of truth. However, early attitudes towards written records, as noted by Plato and Montaigne, were skeptical, viewing them more as prompts for thought rather than repositories of wisdom or truth.

With further technological advancements, particularly in writing and photography, memory support transformed. The legacies of Gutenberg (printing) and Daguerre (photography) led to fixed, objective records becoming widely understood and shared, altering the role of memory in society. In this new environment, memory could be evaluated against these public records, creating a standard where truth became normative for memory. This shift marked a significant change from earlier times when other aspects of memory, such as its creative and associative nature, were more prominent.

In summary, the chapter argues that the widespread use of technology as a memory support has reshaped the normative role of truth in memory. This transformation has sidelined other significant facets of memory that were vital in the evolutionary development of this faculty in both animals and human societies.

22.4 Worries About Memory-Supporting Technology and Lifelogging

Chapter 22.4 examines concerns related to memory-supporting technology and lifelogging, focusing on the perception that lifelogs contain truths that human memory does not, making them more reliable. Two primary concerns are highlighted:

Psychological Impacts of Lifelogging: Lifelogging can lead to unbalanced or psychologically disturbing self-images. Anita Allen points out that an 'unredacted lifelog' might be a burden as it enables destructive reminding and remembrance, preventing the therapeutic value of forgetting certain experiences. This could exacerbate issues for individuals experiencing depression, as they might excessively ruminate on negative past events. The permanence of digital records may give disproportionate significance to trivial or negative experiences, especially from adolescence, affecting individuals later in life.

Privacy Concerns: Viktor Mayer-Schönberger raises the issue of privacy, suggesting that comprehensive digital memory could create a more intrusive version of surveillance ('digital panopticon'). This might inhibit present actions due to concerns about future perceptions. Allen also discusses the potential for lifelogs to lead to invasions of privacy, with government entities possibly seeking access to personal lifelogs. The risk extends to 'sousveillance' where acquaintances or friends could use lifelogging tools to monitor others.

The chapter acknowledges these concerns but suggests they might be overstated. It argues that the influx of reliable information from various sources like surveillance, sousveillance, and social networking could result in a society inundated with truths, but not necessarily the whole truth.

As lifelogging becomes more common, social norms struggle to adapt, leading to a world where expectations of privacy are diminishing. There is a risk that choosing not to lifelog could be viewed suspiciously, further eroding privacy norms. However, relying solely on technical solutions to these sociotechnical problems is unlikely to be effective. Privacy controls often confuse users, and privacy-enhancing technologies have usability issues. Additionally, the ease of collecting, storing, and retrieving information in lifelogging conflicts with complex security measures, which can be counterproductive if they're too cumbersome for practical use.

In summary, the chapter highlights the psychological and privacy-related implications of lifelogging and memory-supporting technology, cautioning against viewing these challenges as purely technical problems and emphasizing the need for a broader sociotechnical approach.

22.5 Mechanisms to Subvert the Record

Chapter 22.5 explores ideas for subverting the record in memory-supporting technologies to address concerns about privacy and the normativity of truth. Two main strategies are discussed:

Information with Expiration Dates: Viktor Mayer-Schönberger suggests that digital information could have 'sell-by dates', meaning it would automatically delete after a certain period. This concept would allow users to set a deletion date for files like Word documents, which would auto-delete after, for example, a year from the last edit. However, this approach has several practical issues. It could lead to frustration and loss of important data if users forget to reset deletion dates. In a corporate setting, multiple users with differing opinions about data longevity could complicate matters. The idea might be more irritating than helpful, leading to confusion, neglect, and potential distress when valuable data is lost unintentionally.

Randomized Falsification of Lifelogs: Dodge and Kitchin propose that lifelogs could be programmed to randomly alter some data, making it slightly inaccurate. This approach uses the expectation of truth to protect privacy; if some data in a lifelog is known to be potentially false, the overall reliability of the lifelog diminishes, making it less valuable for those who might misuse it. While this idea cleverly undermines threats to privacy using the normativity of truth, it also undermines the primary value of the lifelog - its accuracy. Users of lifelogs seek true, reliable information, not false memories. Therefore, a system that occasionally provides false information may not be practical or desirable.

The chapter suggests that strategies focusing on deletion or manipulation of digital memories might be counterproductive. They could diminish the utility of lifelogs and other digital memory aids, which are valued for their accuracy and comprehensive record-keeping. While these technologies pose challenges, particularly concerning privacy and the overwhelming truthfulness of digital records, strategies that significantly reduce their usefulness might not be the best solution. The ease and low cost of data storage and retrieval make these technologies appealing, leading to the perspective that the benefits of abundant information outweigh the potential difficulties.

22.6 Conclusion: The Perils of Rich Representations

Chapter 22.6 concludes that while the advancement of memory-supporting technologies like lifelogging is beneficial, it necessitates a shift in our norms and expectations regarding memory and the use of technology. The main points discussed are:

Adapting to New Circumstances: Just as society adapted from orality to literacy, a similar shift is required to accommodate the constant presence of past lifelogs. We need to adapt to a reality where our past is no longer expected to simply fade away.

Guarding Against Closed World Assumption: It's crucial not to assume that if something isn't found in a digital record (like a lifelog or on the Internet), it isn't important. This assumption is particularly dangerous given the unequal access to technology.

Avoiding the Demand for Consistency: Memories are subjective and can differ greatly between individuals. A future where digital records are considered more reliable than human testimony would be problematic.

Being Cautious of Hindsight: Decisions made in the past should not be judged harshly with the benefit of hindsight, especially when contemporary digital records provide more context than was available at the time.

Maintaining Public and Private Space Distinction: Despite society’s increasing disregard for this distinction, privacy should be seen as a public good, not just an individual interest. The individual may benefit from transparency and information abundance, but privacy serves the larger community.

Autonomy and Informational Self-Determination: People should have the right to control their personal information. The growth of memory-supporting technologies shouldn’t undermine this right or our reasonable expectations of privacy.

Retaining the Right to Mystery: Even with the proliferation of lifelogging and similar technologies, it's important to preserve the right to have aspects of our lives remain private or unknown.

The chapter highlights the need for a careful balance between embracing the benefits of memory-supporting technologies and preserving individual privacy, autonomy, and the rich, nuanced nature of human memory and experience.